Jainism and Buddhism: Religious Reform Movements of 6th Century BCE India

India in the 6th century BCE witnessed a spiritual and social upheaval. This period saw the birth of two major reformist religious movements — Jainism and Buddhism. Arising as a challenge to the dominant Brahmanical orthodoxy, these faiths changed the trajectory of Indian civilization forever.

For UPSC and JKAS aspirants, understanding these religions is vital for both Prelims and Mains.

Historical Context of 6th Century BCE India

The 6th century BCE is marked by the rise of the Mahajanapadas, sixteen large states that emerged after the disintegration of tribal societies. Political competition led to growing urban centers, trade, and a money economy.

At the same time, society was burdened by:

• Vedic rituals monopolized by Brahmins.
• Social inequality through rigid caste divisions.
• A growing merchant class that found no spiritual solace in ritualism.

This ripe socio-economic scenario became the breeding ground for spiritual alternatives.

The Need for Religious Reform

The Vedic religion had become ritualistic, costly, and caste-exclusive. Only Brahmins had access to sacred knowledge, alienating large sections of society.

Key triggers for reform:

• Overemphasis on animal sacrifices.
• Rise in ahimsa (non-violence) sentiment.
• Vaishyas and Shudras sought spiritual empowerment.

These conditions set the stage for reformist leaders like Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.

Common Features of Jainism and Buddhism

While Jainism and Buddhism differ in many aspects, they also share several ideological similarities:

• Rejection of Vedic authority and Brahmanical dominance.
• Emphasis on ethical conduct over ritual purity.
• Advocated non-violence, truthfulness, celibacy, and renunciation.
• Promoted monastic life and universal salvation.

Jainism – Origins and Growth

Origin:
Jainism is one of the oldest religions in India, believed to have existed long before the 6th century BCE. It emphasizes non-violence (ahimsa), truth (satya), and asceticism as paths to liberation. Jain tradition holds that the religion is eternal and has been revived time and again by 24 Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers).

Founder of Jainism (Traditional View):
According to Jain beliefs, Rishabhanatha (also called Adinath, Emblem-Bull)_was the first Tirthankara and hence the founder of Jainism in a traditional or mythological sense. He is even mentioned in some Hindu scriptures like the Bhagavata Purana.

Real (Historical) Founder of Jainism:
Historically, Vardhamana Mahavira(Emblem – Lion) (599–527 BCE) is considered the real founder of Jainism. He was the 24th and last Tirthankara and played a critical role in organizing and spreading Jain doctrines in a structured way. (23rd Tirthankara was Parsavanath.)

• Born in Kundagrama (near Vaishali) to a royal family.
• Renounced worldly life at 30 and practiced severe penance.(Renuciation)
• Attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience) at 42.
• First Sermon at Pava to his eleven disciples known as Ganddharas, also established the Jain Sangha (community).
• Death at the age of 72 in 486 BC at Pavapuri near Rajagriha.
• He became the head of a sect Nirgranthas (free from letters), later called as ‘Jinas’.
• He was called Jaina or Jiterndriya (one who conquered his senses.)

Jainism spread through:

• Mahavira’s Sangha (community).
• Support from urban merchants.
• Use of Prakrit made it accessible.

Jain Philosophy and Teachings

Syadavada: All our judgements are necessarily relative, conditional and limited. It is the theory of ‘may be’ and seven modes of prediction are possible.

Jain philosophy rests on the Triratnas:

1. Right Faith (Samyak Darshan)
2. Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana)
3. Right Conduct (Samyak Karma)

Five Principles of Jainism (Mahavratas):

Jains believe in an eternal soul governed by karma and rebirth.

Five Instruments of Knowledge in Jainism (Panch Jnana)

Jain Texts and Literature

• Sacred texts: Agamas
• Written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit
• Oral tradition was strong; texts compiled later by Jain councils.

Sects of Jainism

Jainism is mainly divided into two major sects, formed around the 3rd century BCE due to differences in monastic practices, dress codes, and doctrinal interpretations.

1. Digambara (Sky-clad)

2.Shwetambara (White-clad)

Sub-sects Within These:

Shwetambara has further sub-sects:

• Murtipujaka – idol worshippers
• Sthanakavasi – non-idol worshippers
• Terapanthi – reformist sect, strict discipline

🧾 Exam Tip:

“Differentiate between Digambara and Shwetambara sects of Jainism” is a frequently asked UPSC/JKAS mains question. Use comparative tables and examples for better scoring.

Jainism and Society

• Promoted asceticism and detachment.
• Monks and nuns lived under strict discipline.
• Traders supported the religion financially.
• Women’s position was debated; Digambaras opposed female salvation.

🧭 Spread of Jainism

Jainism, though initially confined to the Ganga Valley, gradually spread across India due to the following factors:

🔹 Royal Patronage:

• King Bimbisara and later Chandragupta Maurya (who became a Jain monk under Bhadrabahu) played a key role in supporting Jainism.
• Kharavela of Kalinga (1st century BCE) was a major patron. He spread Jainism in eastern India and beyond.

🔹 Non-Violent and Ethical Appeal:

• Its principles of ahimsa (non-violence), truth, and asceticism attracted people, especially traders and merchants, who related to the idea of non-violence and truth in trade.

🔹 Support from the Mercantile Class:

• Jainism received generous donations and land grants from the vaishya class, helping build temples and sustain monastic orders.

🔹 Language of the Masses:

• Jain monks used Prakrit and later regional languages instead of Sanskrit, making it easier for common people to understand.

🔹 Spread to South India:

• The migration of Bhadrabahu and his disciples to Karnataka during the Mauryan period helped Jainism thrive in the South.
• It found support from dynasties like the Gangas, Rashtrakutas, and Hoysalas.

🔹 Jain Councils:

• The First Jain Council (3rd century BCE) at Pataliputra and the Second Council at Vallabhi helped preserve Jain scriptures and formalize doctrines.

🌟 Importance of Jainism in Indian History

Jainism left a lasting imprint on India’s religious, cultural, and intellectual life:

🧘‍♂️ Ethical Philosophy:

• Promoted ahimsa, aparigraha (non-possession), anekantavada (multiplicity of truth) – influencing later Indian thought, including Gandhian ideology.

📜 Contribution to Literature:

• Vast body of Jain texts in Prakrit, Ardha-Magadhi, Apabhramsha, Kannada, and Tamil.
• Example: Tattvartha Sutra by Umāsvāti – earliest systematic Jain philosophy.

🏛️ Architecture and Art:

• Built magnificent temples (e.g., Dilwara temples of Mount Abu, Shravanabelagola in Karnataka).
• Developed rock-cut architecture (e.g., Udayagiri, Khandagiri caves).

🕊️ Impact on Other Religions:

• Its ideas influenced Buddhism, Bhakti movement, and modern Indian secular thought.

🧑‍🏫 Educational Institutions:

• Established mathas (monastic schools) and promoted education.

📉 Causes Behind the Decline of Jainism

Despite its early success, Jainism gradually declined due to various internal and external reasons:

1️⃣ Extreme Asceticism:

• Jainism promoted rigorous ascetic practices (fasting, nudity, self-mortification), making it difficult for the masses to follow.

2️⃣ Rigid Doctrine:

• Strict adherence to non-violence and vegetarianism became impractical for a large population, especially agrarian societies.

3️⃣ Lack of Royal Support in Later Periods:

• After the Guptas, who favored Hinduism, Jainism lost significant state patronage.

4️⃣ Rise of Hindu Revivalism:

• The Bhakti movement, which emphasized personal devotion, simplified rituals, and social inclusiveness, attracted people away from Jainism.

5️⃣ Division Within the Sect:

• The division into Digambaras and Shvetambaras weakened internal unity and created doctrinal confusion.

6️⃣ Decline of Urban Centers:

• Jainism was primarily urban-based; as urban trade declined, so did the support base of Jainism.

7️⃣ Competition from Buddhism:

• Early on, Jainism faced stiff competition from Buddhism, which was less rigid and more accommodating to common people.

✅ Conclusion

Jainism, though it declined in popularity, remains a vital strand of Indian religious heritage. Its contributions to non-violence, ethics, architecture, and literature are invaluable and continue to shape India’s cultural and moral framework.

Buddhism – Origins and Development

📌 Introduction

Buddhism originated in 6th century BCE as a religious and socio-philosophical reform movement in India. It arose in response to the ritualistic excesses of Vedic Brahmanism, social inequalities, and the spiritual aspirations of people seeking a path of liberation that was simple, rational, and inclusive.

👤 Founder of Buddhism: Gautama Buddha(Sakyamuni or Tathagata)

📖 Historical Context – Why Did Buddhism Emerge?

⚖️ Socio-Religious Conditions:

• The later Vedic religion became highly ritualistic, dominated by Brahmins who claimed spiritual monopoly.
• Common people were excluded from religious discourse.
• Caste system, animal sacrifices, and blind rituals created spiritual dissatisfaction.

🏞️ Political Conditions:

• Emergence of Mahajanapadas created urban centers and new merchant classes.
• Republican states (like the Shakyas) promoted individual freedom and inquiry.

💰 Economic Changes:

• Growth of trade and cities led to questioning of rigid caste norms.
• Merchants supported non-violent ideologies like Buddhism and Jainism.

🧘‍♂️ The Quest of Buddha

Buddha renounced his princely life in search of the truth of suffering and liberation (moksha). He practiced severe austerities, but realized that extreme self-denial is not the path to truth, thus formulating the Middle Path (Madhyamarga).

🔄 Turning Point:

• Enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree (Uruvela/Bodh Gaya).
• Realized the Four Noble Truths and formulated the Eightfold Path.

🧩 Four Noble Truths (Chatvari Arya Satyani)

1. Dukkha – Life is full of suffering.
2. Samudaya – There is a cause of suffering (desire).
3. Nirodha – Cessation of suffering is possible.
4. Magga – The way to end suffering is through the Eightfold Path.

🛤️ The Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

This path emphasizes ethical living, mental discipline, and wisdom as means to attain Nirvana.

☸️ The Three Jewels of Buddhism (Triratna)

The core of Buddhist faith rests on the Triratna, or Three Jewels, which every follower takes refuge in:

UPSC Relevance: Triratna is the basic doctrinal foundation of Buddhism, often asked in prelims and Mains in relation to Sangha and Dhamma.

📜 Code of Conduct (Five Precepts – Panchasila)

Every lay Buddhist adheres to a basic moral code known as the Five Precepts, guiding daily behavior:

Advanced Path for Monks/Nuns includes 10 or more precepts, like renunciation of wealth, celibacy, etc.

🧘‍♂️ Belief in Nirvana

🔹 What is Nirvana?

• Nirvana is the ultimate goal of Buddhism – the cessation of suffering (Dukkha) and liberation from the cycle of birth and death (Samsara).
• It is a state of bliss, free from desire, ignorance, and attachment.

Buddha taught that Nirvana can be attained in this life, not just after death, through ethical living, meditation, and wisdom.

🕊️ Belief in Ahimsa (Non-Violence)

• Ahimsa or non-injury is a central tenet of Buddhism.
• Unlike Jainism’s absolute ahimsa, Buddhism focuses on intention: one must avoid intentional harm.
• This belief extended to:
  • Vegetarianism (in some schools)
  • Avoiding warfare or violence
  • Compassion toward all sentient beings

Ahimsa influenced Ashokan policies, Gandhian ideology, and India’s broader ethical traditions.

🛕 Sects of Buddhism

Over time, Buddhism split into major sects due to philosophical and doctrinal differences:

🏛️ Buddhist Sangha and Mission

• Sangha: A community of monks and nuns established by Buddha to spread his teachings.
• Open to all castes and genders, promoting equality and discipline.
• Early Buddhist teachings were passed orally in Pali language.

📚 Buddhist Scriptures

Buddhist texts are divided into canons (Pitakas) and vary by sect:

🔹 Tripitaka (Three Baskets) – Theravāda Canon (in Pali)

🔹 Mahāyāna Texts (in Sanskrit) include:

• Lotus Sutra, Prajnaparamita Sutra, Lankavatara Sutra
• Emphasis on Bodhisattvas, compassion, and universal salvation

🛕 Vajrayāna Texts:

• Tantras, Mantras, and Ritual texts (mostly in Tibetan)

📝 Note: Buddhist scriptures were originally oral and written down centuries later.

🌟 Importance of Buddhism in Indian History

1️⃣ Spiritual Revolution:

• Offered salvation without rituals or priesthood
• Promoted equality and broke caste barriers

2️⃣ Philosophical Depth:

• Introduced concepts like Anatta (no-soul), Anicca (impermanence), and Dukkha (suffering)

3️⃣ Ethical Foundation:

• Its moral code emphasized Ahimsa, compassion, and truth, influencing leaders like Ashoka and Gandhi

4️⃣ Impact on Art and Architecture:

• Inspired stupas (Sanchi), chaityas, viharas, and rock-cut caves (Ajanta, Ellora)
• Gandhara and Mathura schools of art flourished under Buddhist patronage

5️⃣ Literary Legacy:

• Massive body of texts in Pali, Sanskrit, and Tibetan
• Helped develop regional languages

🌍 Spread of Buddhism

🔹 In India:

• Flourished under Mauryan emperor Ashoka – spread through missionaries, inscriptions, and monuments
• Became dominant in Magadha, Bihar, Bengal, UP, and Kashmir

🔹 Outside India:

🌐 Result: Buddhism became the first world religion to spread peacefully across continents.

🏛️ Buddhist Councils (Sangiti)

These councils were convened to preserve, interpret, and codify Buddha’s teachings:

🌍 Significance of the Origin of Buddhism

• Challenged caste-based Brahmanism and made spirituality accessible to all.
• Laid the foundation for monastic tradition, rational thought, and non-violence.
• Played a crucial role in Indian art, architecture, and philosophy.
• Spread to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, China, Southeast Asia, and beyond.

📉 Causes for the Decline of Buddhism in India

Despite its vast popularity and spread, Buddhism gradually declined in India after the 7th century CE due to several internal and external factors:

🔹 1. Loss of Royal Patronage

• After the Gupta Empire, which favored Hinduism, royal support for Buddhism declined.
• Hindu rulers like the Pallavas, Cholas, and later Rajputs promoted Shaivism and Vaishnavism instead.

🔹 2. Internal Divisions

• Splits into Hinayana, Mahayana, and Vajrayana led to ritualistic excesses and doctrinal confusion.
• Monasteries became wealthy and corrupt, drifting from original teachings.

🔹 3. Hindu Revivalism

• Rise of Bhakti movement, Puranic literature, and temple-based Hinduism offered emotional and personal spiritual experiences.
• Buddhism’s non-theistic, philosophical tone couldn’t compete with devotionalism.

🔹 4. Language Barrier

• Buddhist texts were in Pali or Sanskrit, while Hindu Bhakti saints used local languages, reaching the masses more effectively.

🔹 5. Decline of Trade and Urban Centers

• Buddhism thrived in urban and mercantile societies.
• As trade declined post-Gupta, monasteries lost economic support.

🔹 6. Foreign Invasions

• Turk invasions (10th–12th centuries), especially by Bakhtiyar Khilji, destroyed major Buddhist institutions like Nalanda and Vikramshila.

🏛️ Buddhist Architecture – Art That Speaks Enlightenment

Buddhist architecture evolved from simple stupas to elaborate cave temples, reflecting both spiritual symbolism and artistic brilliance:

🔸 1. Stupas

• Dome-shaped relic shrines symbolizing Buddha’s parinirvana.
• Early stupas: Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh), Bharhut, Amaravati, Dhamek Stupa (Sarnath).
• Features: Harmika (square rail), Chattra (umbrella), Toranas (gateways), and Vedika (fence).

🔸 2. Chaityas (Prayer Halls) and Viharas (Monasteries)

• Rock-cut cave structures carved into hills.
• Famous examples:
  • Ajanta and Ellora Caves (Maharashtra)
  • Karla and Bhaja Caves
• Chaityas: Horseshoe-shaped entrance, stupa inside.
• Viharas: Residential quarters with cells for monks.

🔸 3. Gandhara and Mathura Schools of Art

🎨 These styles gave us the first human images of Buddha, replacing earlier aniconic representations.

🎓 Buddhist Universities – Pillars of Ancient Learning

🏫 1. Nalanda University (5th century CE – 12th century CE)

• Located in Bihar, founded during Gupta era, later expanded under Harshavardhana and Pala rulers.
• Subjects: Buddhism, Logic, Grammar, Medicine, Philosophy.
• 10,000+ students, 2,000+ teachers; international scholars from Tibet, China, Korea, Sri Lanka.
• Destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji (1193 CE).

🏫 2. Vikramshila University (8th century CE)

• Founded by Pala King Dharmapala in Bihar.
• Specialized in Tantric Buddhism (Vajrayana).
• Also destroyed by Muslim invaders.

🏫 3. Takshashila (Taxila)

• One of the oldest universities (before Buddha’s time), located in modern-day Pakistan.
• Center for Vedas, Medicine, Logic, and Buddhist thought.

🏫 4. Valabhi University (Gujarat)

• Important center for Hinayana Buddhism.
• Rivaled Nalanda in popularity in Western India.

📝 These universities created a Pan-Asian intellectual network and shaped the monastic education system.

✅ Conclusion

The decline of Buddhism in India was a complex process, rooted in both internal stagnation and external aggression. Yet, its architectural marvels, educational institutions, and universal teachings continue to shape Indian and global heritage.

Spread of Jainism and Buddhism

Both religions gained prominence through royal and public support:

• Jainism: Patronized by kings like Chandragupta Maurya, spread mainly in Karnataka, Gujarat, and Rajasthan.
• Buddhism: Emperor Ashoka embraced and propagated Buddhism via edicts, stupas, and missionaries to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, and beyond.

Artistic contributions:

• Jain rock-cut temples at Shravanabelagola.
• Buddhist stupas at Sanchi, Amaravati, Barhut.
• Paintings in Ajanta and Ellora caves.

Jainism vs. Buddhism – A Comparative Analysis

Decline of Jainism and Buddhism in India

Despite their popularity, both religions saw a decline:

• Brahmanical Revival: Rise of devotional Hinduism under the Guptas.
• Internal Divisions: Sects within Buddhism diluted the core message.
• Loss of Patronage: After Ashoka and Kanishka, state support waned.
• Islamic Invasions: Destroyed monasteries and learning centers like Nalanda and Vikramashila.

Legacy and Influence on Indian Culture

• Ahimsa and compassion became core values of Indian thought.
• Language development: Pali, Prakrit enriched literary traditions.
• Architecture: Stupas, chaityas, and viharas inspired temple design.
• Ethical life and social equality were emphasized across society.

Jainism and Buddhism in UPSC/JKAS Mains Syllabus

Exam-focused highlights:

• GS Paper I – Indian Culture: Origin, philosophy, literature, art.
• GS Paper II – Ethics: Ahimsa, compassion, truthfulness.
• GS Paper IV – Ethics, Integrity, Aptitude: Buddhist moral philosophy.

Past UPSC Mains Questions:

• “Examine the similarities and differences between Jainism and Buddhism.” (2014)
• “Assess the impact of Buddhism on Indian art and architecture.” (2020)

Tips for Answers:

• Use comparative tables.
• Quote Dhammapada or Jaina Sutras.
• Refer to archaeological sites and their influence.

FAQs on Jainism and Buddhism for UPSC/JKAS Aspirants

Q1. What is the significance of the 6th century BCE in Indian religious history?
A: It marked the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism, which challenged ritualism and caste dominance of Brahmanism.

Q2. Why did Jainism and Buddhism reject the Vedas?
A: Both believed that the Vedas propagated rituals and caste superiority, neglecting ethical and spiritual development.

Q3. What is the difference between Kevala Jnana and Nirvana?
A: Kevala Jnana (Jainism) means complete knowledge; Nirvana (Buddhism) means liberation from suffering and rebirth.

Q4. How did Ashoka contribute to the spread of Buddhism?
A: Through missionary efforts, inscriptions, construction of stupas, and convening the 3rd Buddhist Council.

Q5. What role did women play in these religions?
A: Both religions allowed women to become nuns, though Jain Digambaras denied them salvation. Buddhist nuns were respected in Theravada and Mahayana.

Q6. Are Jainism and Buddhism still practiced today?
A: Yes. Jainism thrives in India, while Buddhism has millions of followers in Asia and growing communities globally.

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Rohit Thapa

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