Post Mauryan Art and Culture: Gandhara, Mathura & Coinage – UPSC Notes

Bridging the Fall of Mauryas to the Rise of the Guptas

🬝 Introduction: The Post-Mauryan Transition

The decline of the Mauryan Empire around 185 BCE marked a significant political vacuum in the Indian subcontinent. This period witnessed the rise of indigenous dynasties like the Shungas and Kanvas, and foreign powers such as the Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas. These groups, though politically fragmented, contributed significantly to the cultural, religious, and artistic landscape of India. Understanding this transitional period is crucial for UPSC/JKAS aspirants, especially for GS Paper I – Ancient Indian History and Prelims Art & Culture.

🏯 Native Rulers of Post-Mauryan India

🔹 1. Shunga Dynasty (c. 185 BCE – 73 BCE)

• Founded by: Pushyamitra Shunga, a Brahmin general who overthrew the last Mauryan ruler Brihadratha in 185 BCE during a military parade.
• Capital: Pataliputra

➔ Key Features:

• Revived Brahmanical traditions, defeated Bactrian King, Dematrius and performed Ashvamedha sacrifice, symbolizing imperial authority. This was a notable return to Vedic rituals after the relatively Buddhist-oriented Mauryan rule.
• Initially hostile to Buddhism, as seen in Buddhist texts like the Divyavadana which mention persecution of monks; however, archaeological evidence shows that later Shunga rulers sponsored Buddhist architecture such as the Bharhut Stupa and renovations at Sanchi.
• Successfully defended northern India against Indo-Greek invasions, particularly from Demetrius and Menander. Pushyamitra is said to have held the frontier in regions like Saketa and Mathura.
• The Greek Ambassador Heliodorus visited the court of fifth Shunga King Bhagabhadra and set-up a pillar in honour of Lord Vasudeva near Vidisha(MP).
• Patronized Sanskrit literature, including works like Malavikagnimitram (by Kalidasa, which references Prince Agnimitra, a Shunga king). They played a crucial role in the revival of classical Sanskrit as a court language.
• Later Kings: Vasumitra, Vajraqmitra,Bhagabhadra, Devabhuti(Last) – All of them were Brahmans.
• Promoted terracotta art and sculpture, particularly in Vidisha and Mathura, which reflect a transitional style from Mauryan polished art to more indigenous and expressive forms.
• Encouraged the growth of Brahmanical temples, representing early structural temple architecture and icon worship.
• Shunga Art: Bharthut Stupa, Gateway railing surrounding the Sanchi Stupa built by Ashoka, Vihara, Chaitya and Stupa of Bhaja(Poona), Amaravati Stupa.
• Their rule marked the beginning of regional political traditions in the Gangetic plains after a period of imperial centralization under the Mauryas.

🔹 2. Kanva Dynasty (c. 73 BCE – 28 BCE)

• Founded by: Vasudeva Kanva, a Brahmin minister who overthrew the last Shunga king, Devabhuti, in 73 BCE, marking the end of the Shunga dynasty and a continuation of Brahmanical rule.
• Capital: Pataliputra

➔ Key Features:

• The Kanva dynasty was short-lived, with only four rulers spanning approximately 45 years.
• The dynasty is primarily known from the Puranas, as no major inscriptions or archaeological remains from their rule have been found.
• The Kanvas continued many administrative practices of the Mauryas and Shungas, including a centralized bureaucracy and provincial governance.
• Though Brahmanical in orientation, they likely maintained a degree of religious tolerance, a feature inherited from earlier dynasties.
• The Kanvas played a transitional role, preserving continuity in governance and culture during a period of political fragmentation.
• The dynasty came to an end when it was overthrown by the Satavahanas, marking a shift in power from the Gangetic plains to the Deccan region.
• Their decline also symbolized the weakening of Magadha’s political dominance and the rise of regional kingdoms in peninsular India.
• Bhumimitra and Narayana succeeded Vasudeva. All the rulers were Brahmins.
• The last ruler, Susarman, was killed by Andhra King Simuka.

🔹 3. Cheti Dynasty of Kalinga (c. 1st Century BCE)

• Known from the Hathigumpha Inscription of King Kharavela, which is engraved on the Udayagiri hills near Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
• Capital: Kalinganagara (modern-day Odisha), a prosperous city with developed urban infrastructure.

➔ Key Features:

• Kharavela was a powerful and dynamic Jain monarch from the Cheti (Chedi) dynasty who ruled in the 1st century BCE. He is celebrated for his military expeditions against kingdoms like the Satavahanas in the Deccan and Indo-Greeks in the northwest.
• Rebuilt and expanded the city infrastructure, including canals, fortifications, and gardens, reflecting his concern for civic administration.
• A devout patron of Jainism, he undertook the restoration of the sacred Khandagiri and Udayagiri caves, which served as monastic residences (chaityas and viharas) for Jain ascetics.
• The Hathigumpha inscription is a significant source for understanding early Jain patronage, written in Prakrit using Brahmi script, making it one of the earliest royal inscriptions in vernacular language.
• Promoted arts and public welfare, including irrigation systems and construction of public works.
• Declared himself as a universal emperor (chakravartin) and sought to revive Kalinga’s glory after its decline post-Ashoka’s invasion.
• The inscription also provides an early example of royal historiography, detailing year-by-year achievements, courtly titles, and victories.
• His rule symbolizes the rise of regional assertion and cultural resurgence in eastern India during the post-Mauryan period.

🔹 4. Satavahana Dynasty (c. 1st Century BCE – 3rd Century CE)

• Founded by: Simuka, rose to prominence after the fall of the Kanvas, and established their power in parts of Central India. They were successors of Mauryas in the Deccan and Central India.
• Capital: Pratishthana (modern Paithan, Maharashtra)

➔ Key Features:

• Played a pivotal role in reviving Brahmanism in the Deccan region while continuing the Mauryan legacy of religious tolerance, supporting both Buddhism and Jainism.
• Ruled large parts of central and southern India, including present-day Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.
• Most notable ruler: Gautamiputra Satakarni, hailed as the “destroyer of the Shakas, Yavanas (Greeks), and Pahlavas (Parthians).”
  • His achievements are detailed in the Naneghat inscription and Nasik prashasti by his mother Gautami Balashri.
  • Assumed the title of Raja-Raja and Maharaja.
• Gautamiputra is credited with reasserting Vedic social order, protecting varna-dharma, and suppressing foreign influences.
• Their administration included Amatyas (ministers) and Maharathis (military governors), and they practiced hereditary succession.
  • Provinces were called Ahara.
• Issued bilingual coins—often in Prakrit language and Brahmi script—featuring royal names and satakarni titles. Their monetary system influenced local economies and trade policies.
• Maintained extensive trade relations with Roman Empire, as seen from Roman coins found in Deccan and coastal Andhra.
• Ports like Kottapatnam and Sopara were key maritime centers.
• Promoted urbanization and craft production—evident in the rise of guilds and commercial towns.
• Supported rock-cut Buddhist architecture at Nasik, Karle, Bhaja, and Ajanta, which featured stupas, chaityas, and viharas.
• Later rulers like Yajna Sri Satakarni revived Satavahana power after temporary decline, maintaining Deccan as a vibrant political and cultural center.
  • His coins fugured ‘Ship with double mast.’
• Pulamayi III was the last Satavahana ruler.
• Their fall led to the emergence of successor states like Ikshvakus in Andhra and Vakatakas in Vidarbha, setting the stage for the rise of the Gupta Empire in the north.

🛡️ Foreign Rulers in Post-Mauryan India

🔹 1. Indo-Greeks (c. 180 BCE – 10 CE)

• Invaded India under Demetrius, son of Euthydemus I, around 180 BCE, following the weakening of Mauryan control in the northwest.
• Most famous ruler: Menander I (Milinda), who ruled from Sagala (modern Sialkot in Pakistan).

➔ Key Features:

• Menander is renowned for his conversion to Buddhism, as recorded in the famous text Milindapanha (The Questions of Milinda), a philosophical dialogue between him and the Buddhist monk Nagasena. This text is a key source for Buddhist logic and ethics.
• Issued bilingual coins in Greek and Kharosthi, often featuring the king’s image on one side and Indian symbols or deities like Krishna-Vasudeva and Balarama-Samkarshana on the reverse. This reflects syncretic religious symbolism.
• First foreign rulers in India to adopt Indian iconography and language on coins, laying the foundation for later dynasties like the Kushanas.
• Their coinage is notable for its high artistic quality, metallurgical standards, and depiction of rulers with divine symbols (e.g., the Nike figure symbolizing victory).
• Played a major role in the spread of Hellenistic influence in Indian art, astronomy, military traditions, and governance.
• Encouraged the growth of urban centers and Hellenistic-style cities with grid planning, forts, and coin-based economy.
• Their presence helped establish cross-cultural links between India and the Mediterranean world, particularly through the Silk Route and Indo-Roman trade networks.
• Indo-Greek rule in India lasted nearly two centuries in fragmented principalities, mostly in Gandhara, Punjab, and parts of western Uttar Pradesh.
• Their legacy was carried forward through Greco-Buddhist art and early sculptural representations of the Buddha influenced by Greek realism.

🔹 2. Shakas or Scythians (c. 100 BCE – 4th Century CE)

• Displaced Indo-Greeks; ruled large parts of western and central India, especially Gujarat, Maharashtra, and parts of Malwa.
• Key ruler: Rudradaman I (Western Kshatrapas), who reigned around 130 CE.

➔ Key Features:

• Junagadh Inscription of Rudradaman I (circa 150 CE) is considered the earliest extensive inscription in classical Sanskrit. It marks a transition from Prakrit and reflects the rising status of Sanskrit under foreign rulers.
• The inscription commemorates the repair of the Sudarshana Lake (originally built during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign and enhanced under Ashoka), showcasing the Shakas’ commitment to public welfare and continuity of Mauryan civic legacy.
  • Sudarshana Lake:
    • Constructed by PushyaGupta the Governor of Saurashtra under Chandragupta Maurya.
    • Tushasp constructed damon the lake during the reign of Ashoka Maurya.
    • First reconstruction by Governor Survishakh under Saka Sartap Rudradaman and second by Chakrapalit under Skandgupta.
• Rudradaman was known for his military conquests—he defeated the Satavahanas twice and expanded Kshatrapa influence across western India.
• Promoted urbanization and trade by supporting cities like Ujjain, Bharuch, and Sopara as major trade centers, facilitating Indo-Roman commerce.
• Encouraged temple architecture, and though evidence of Shaka-era temples is limited, the influence can be traced in subsequent Gupta structures.
• Issued silver coins with legends in Brahmi script and iconography that combined Hellenistic and Indian motifs—such as thunderbolts, swastikas, and portraits—demonstrating cultural assimilation.
• The Kshatrapas functioned as semi-autonomous satraps (governors) under a nominal overlord, a model influenced by Achaemenid and Hellenistic governance.
• Their rule helped bridge Indian and Iranian cultural elements, contributing to administrative, numismatic, and linguistic developments in post-Mauryan polity.
• Other Important rulers: Nahapana, Ushavadeva, Chastana, Ghamatika etc.

🔹 3. Parthians (c. 1st Century CE)

• Iranian-origin rulers who succeeded the Shakas in northwest India.
• Key ruler: Gondophernes, known from both Indian sources and early Christian traditions.

➔ Key Features:

• Gondophernes is prominently mentioned in Christian texts, especially the Acts of Thomas, which states that St. Thomas the Apostle visited his court and possibly converted him. This makes Gondophernes a significant figure in early Indo-Christian interactions.
• The Parthians ruled from Taxila, a prominent city in the Gandhara region, which remained an important cultural and trade hub under their reign.
• Their reign witnessed Indo-Iranian cultural fusion, evident in coinage that combined Iranian symbolism (such as fire altars) with Indian deities and Brahmi inscriptions.
• Parthian coins often featured the bust of the king on one side and Greek-style inscriptions, showing continuity from Indo-Greek and Shaka precedents.
• Supported cross-cultural trade along the Silk Route, acting as intermediaries between India, Central Asia, and the Roman Empire. Trade items included spices, gems, silk, and fine textiles.
• While politically less expansive than the Indo-Greeks or Kushanas, the Parthians helped maintain Gandhara’s cultural vitality, contributing to the development of early Greco-Buddhist art.
• Their presence marks a transitional phase between Hellenistic and Kushana dominance in northwest India.

🔹 4. Kushana Dynasty Art and Culture (c. 1st – 3rd Century CE)

• Origin: Yuezhi tribe from Central Asia, who migrated via Bactria into India and established a strong empire across north-western India, Afghanistan, and parts of Central Asia.
• Their rule marked the height of foreign influence in India before the Guptas, blending Indian, Iranian, Greek, and Central Asian elements.
• The first Kushan dynasty was founded by Kujala Kad-phises. Wima Khadphises(the 2nd ruler) issued gold coins in India.
• Greatest ruler: Kanishka I, founder of the Kanishka Era (2nd Dynasty) , a powerful emperor who ruled from Peshawar (Purushapura).

➔ Key Features and Kanishka’s Contributions:

• Held 4th Buddhist Council in Kashmir (Kundalvana Monastery, Srinagar) around 78 CE under the presidency of Vasumitra and patronage of Kanishka. It marked the official recognition and rise of Mahayana Buddhism.
• Promoted Mahayana Buddhism, which emphasized the worship of Bodhisattvas and divine Buddhas, spreading it across Central Asia and China through missionary efforts and trade routes.
• Patronized Gandhara and Mathura schools of art, which produced iconic images of the Buddha in human form. Gandhara art reflected Greco-Roman styles, while Mathura emphasized indigenous Indian symbolism.
• Introduced Saka Era (78 CE).
• Issued multi-faith gold and copper coins featuring Greek, Roman, Zoroastrian, and Indian deities like Shiva, Buddha, and Mithra, representing cultural synthesis and religious inclusivity.
• Patronized renowned scholars such as Ashvaghosha, author of Buddhacharita, Vasumitra, and Charaka, the famous physician associated with the Charaka Samhita, advancing Buddhist philosophy and Ayurvedic medicine.

🎨 Cultural and Artistic Contributions

➔ Gandhara School of Art UPSC

• Emerged in northwestern India under Indo-Greek and Kushana patronage, especially under Kanishka I.
• Exhibits strong Greco-Roman artistic features, such as realistic human anatomy, drapery, curly hair, and perspective.
• Introduced anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha—previously represented symbolically (e.g., footprints, wheel).
• Medium used: Schist stone; refined carving techniques.
• Themes: Scenes from Buddha’s life, Bodhisattvas, Jataka tales, and Hellenistic motifs like Corinthian columns and vine scrolls.
• Important sites: Taxila, Peshawar, Hadda, and Bamiyan.
• Played a critical role in the transmission of Buddhism to Central Asia and China via art and missionaries.

➔ Mathura School of Art UPSC

• Evolved from indigenous traditions with minimal foreign influence; used red sandstone from the nearby Sikri quarries.
• Focused on divine exuberance and Indian symbolic motifs rather than realism.
• Represented Buddha, Jain Tirthankaras, Hindu deities like Shiva, Vishnu, and Yaksha-Yakshis.
• Distinguished by the wide face, heavy torso, smiling expressions, and spiritual aura.
• Introduced chakra, lion throne, and Srivatsa mark in iconography.
• Became the base for future developments in Gupta art and Hindu temple sculpture.
• Major centers: Mathura, Kankali Tila, Sarnath, and Kaushambi.

💰 Coinage and Economic Impact

• Foreign rulers issued coins in gold, silver, and copper with exceptional minting techniques and multicultural symbology.
• Greek, Kharosthi, and Brahmi scripts were used, symbolizing administrative inclusiveness and international trade.
• Indo-Greek coins featured Greek deities (Athena, Zeus), while Kushana coins included a pantheon of Indian, Zoroastrian, and Greco-Roman gods.
• Coinage served not only as currency but also as political propaganda showing the legitimacy and divine sanction of rulers.
• Helped standardize regional trade, taxation, and supported urban growth in cities like Ujjain, Bharuch, Taxila, and Mathura.
• Evidence of extensive Indo-Roman trade seen in discovery of Roman gold coins in southern India.
• Merchant guilds or Shrenis grew in power, managing trade, production, and temple patronage.
• Revenue from trade contributed to monumental religious architecture and patronage of scholars and monks.

🧠 Legacy and Impact

• The period fostered a fusion of Indian and foreign traditions, creating a rich cultural mosaic.
• Use of Sanskrit in inscriptions (e.g., Junagadh) signaled linguistic elevation and intellectual revival.
• Promoted Mahayana Buddhism, which traveled along trade routes to Central Asia and China.
• Inspired the emergence of iconographic standards for Buddhist and Hindu worship.
• Gave rise to cultural centers like Gandhara, Mathura, and Amaravati that continued into the Gupta period.
• Advanced knowledge in astronomy, medicine (Ayurveda), and logic through scholars like Charaka and Ashvaghosha.
• Set the stage for the Gupta Age of Classical Indian Civilization, integrating political unity with artistic brilliance.
• Demonstrated India’s resilience and capacity to assimilate and transform foreign influences into its own civilizational identity.

📌 Conclusion: Why This Period Matters

The post-Mauryan era illustrates how invasions did not just destroy, but also contributed to India’s rich heritage. Foreign dynasties like the Indo-Greeks and Kushanas blended Indian spiritualism with Hellenistic and Central Asian influences. Meanwhile, regional dynasties like the Shungas and Satavahanas preserved the subcontinent’s cultural core. This dynamic interplay between indigenous and foreign elements makes this period a vital bridge in understanding India’s ancient transformation.

📝 For UPSC/JKAS Mains Practice:

Q. Examine the cultural contributions of the Indo-Greeks and Kushanas in the context of post-Mauryan India.
Q. Evaluate the role of foreign invasions in shaping Indian polity and society after the fall of the Mauryas.

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Rohit Thapa

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