Indus Valley Civilization (IVC): The First Urban Civilization of India

Introduction:
Long before the rise of the Vedic civilization, a highly advanced and enigmatic urban society thrived in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also referred to as the Harappan Civilization(named by John Marshall), emerged around 2600 BCE and lasted until approximately 1900 BCE. Recognized as one of the world’s earliest urban cultures, the IVC was noted for its well-planned cities, uniform architectural style, sophisticated drainage systems, and a strong emphasis on trade and craftsmanship. Spanning from Balochistan in the west to western Uttar Pradesh in the east, the civilization was centered around the Indus River and its tributaries, laying the foundation for future socio-cultural developments in South Asia. This vast geographical expanse enabled the growth of diverse urban centers that laid the groundwork for future cultural and societal advancements in the Indian subcontinent.

Major River Valley Civilizations and Their Modern Locations

From the earliest days of human history, civilizations flourished near rivers, which provided water for drinking, irrigation, transportation, and fertile soil for agriculture. These river valley civilizations became the cradles of human progress, giving rise to some of the most influential cultures and innovations in history.

Below is a table highlighting major ancient civilizations, their present-day locations, and the rivers they developed around:

Chronology and Phases:

1. Early Harappan Phase (c. 3300–2600 BCE): Characterized by pre-urban developments, pottery, farming, and trade.
2. Mature Harappan Phase (c. 2600–1900 BCE): Full urbanism, city planning, script, standardized weights, and extensive trade.
3. Late Harappan Phase (c. 1900–1300 BCE): Decline of urban features, ruralization, and cultural diffusion into neighboring regions.

Geographical Spread:

• Westernmost site: Sutkagendor (Pakistan-Iran border) – located on the Dasht River
• Easternmost site: Alamgirpur (UP, India) – situated on the Hindon River
• Northernmost site: Manda (Jammu & Kashmir) – on the banks of the Chenab River
• Southernmost site: Daimabad (Maharashtra) – located near the Pravara River (a tributary of the Godavari)
• Mundigak and Shortughal are the two sites located in Afghanistan.

Major Harappan Sites – Location, Discoverer, Key Features

Town Planning:

• Roads were often wide and straight, with standardized brick measurements(4:2:1) used across cities, indicating centralized control or strong cultural uniformity.
• Residential buildings typically had two or more rooms, private wells(in Kalibangan) , bathing areas, and drainage outlets—demonstrating concern for sanitation and personal hygiene.
• Drainage systems were highly advanced, with covered drains running beneath the streets and provision for regular cleaning through manholes and inspection holes.
• The division of the city into a raised Citadel and a Lower Town suggests administrative and social stratification.
• Public structures like granaries(Harappa), assembly halls, and the Great Bath in Mohenjodaro indicate organized civic life.
• Unique feature was the grid system i.e streets cutting across one another at right angles.
• Absence of palaces or large temples suggests an egalitarian society with possibly collective governance or priest-led administration.
• Some cities like Dholavira had water conservation systems, stone-built reservoirs, and tiered layouts, showing adaptability to arid environments.
• Fire altars found at Kalibangan point to ritualistic practices being part of urban life.
• The uniformity in architecture across sites implies strong cultural coherence and standardization.

Society and Economy:

• Agriculture:
  • Wheat, barley, peas, mustard, cotton (first in the world)-which greek called as Sindon..
  • Sugarcane was not known.
  • Irrigation was likely dependent on floodplains of rivers like the Indus and its tributaries.
  • There is also evidence of mixed cropping and seasonal cultivation.
  • Evidence from sites like Kalibangan shows early wooden ploughed fields.
• Domesticated animals:
  • Humped bull, buffalo, sheep, goat, dog, cat, elephant.
  • No conclusive evidence of horse domestication has been found so far.
  • Remains of Horse from Surkotada.
  • The camel was known but not commonly used. Camel bones reported at Kalibangan.
• Craft production:
  • Pottery (both plain and painted), shell and faience beads, seals made from steatite, terracotta figurines (mainly female), copper and bronze tools, and intricate jewelry from semi-precious stones.
  • Specialized craftspeople likely worked in dedicated areas of cities like Lothal.
• Trade:
  • Extensive internal trade between urban and rural areas; external trade with Mesopotamia (evidenced by Mesopotamian texts referring to ‘Meluhha’), Oman, Bahrain.
  • Trade items included lapis lazuli (from Badakhshan), carnelian (from Gujarat), pearls, cotton, and metal goods.
  • Use of standardized weights (binary and decimal systems), uniform cubical weights made of chert, and steatite seals for commercial transactions.They were in multiple of sixteen.
  • Evidence of dockyards (Lothal) and shell-working (Nageshwar) highlights the maritime aspect of trade.
  • Coastal Towns: Lothal, Surkotada, Sutkagendor, Prabhas, Bhatrao, Kalibangan, Dholavira, Daimabad.

Religion and Beliefs:

• Evidence points to open-air rituals and the use of fire altars, especially at sites like Kalibangan, indicating early forms of fire worship.
• The Mother Goddess figurines reflect fertility worship and possibly the reverence of a female divinity, a concept echoed in later Hindu traditions.
• The Pashupati seal, depicting a horned figure surrounded by animals (elephant. tiger, rhino and buffalo), is interpreted by many scholars as a proto-Shiva, suggesting early yogic and animal-associated belief systems.
• Widespread animal worship is inferred from the prominence of motifs like bulls, unicorns, and elephants on seals.
• Worship of trees(Pipal) in their natural state.
• Amulets and charms indicate a belief in protective magic or folk practices for warding off evil.
• The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro suggests ritualistic purification or community bathing practices, which could be linked to religious or social customs.

Art and Craft:

• Terracotta figurines:
  • Included humans (especially female figurines interpreted as Mother Goddess), animals, carts, and toys with movable parts;
  • objects of worship;
  • showed everyday life and beliefs.
• Seals:
  • Made of steatite;
  • often engraved with unicorns, bulls, elephants, and pictographic script;
  • Lion was not known;
  • likely used for trade, identification, and possibly religious purposes.
• Sculpture:
  • The bronze Dancing Girl from Mohenjodaro shows advanced metal casting and artistic flair;
  • the Priest King from Mohenjodaro suggests elite representation with detailed robe and posture.
• Pottery:
  • Typically red ware with black painted or plain(red) geometric and floral designs;
  • wheel-made, indicating mass production;
  • burial pottery suggests ceremonial uses;
  • some pottery shows graffiti marks, hinting at symbolic or ownership purposes.
• Both men and women were fond of ornaments and dressing up.
• Metal images:
  • Bronze image of nude woman dancer (Devadasi)
  • Stone steatite image of a bearded man (Both from Mohenjodaro).
• Bead making and jewellery of gold, silver precious stones were made.
• They played dice games. Gambling was their favourite time pass. No clear evidence of music.
• Harappans were acquainted with bronze. Bronze was made by mixing copper (from Khetri) with tin.

Script and Language:

• Script and Language:
  • The Harappan script is found inscribed on seals, copper tablets, pottery, and other artifacts.
  • It is primarily pictographic in nature, consisting of about 400 unique symbols.
  • The script was usually written from right to left in the first line and then left to right in the second line, this style is called Boustrophedon, although bidirectional writing has also been observed.
  • Despite decades of scholarly efforts, the script remains undeciphered due to the lack of bilingual inscriptions and short length of most texts.
• The language behind the script is unknown, but several hypotheses suggest it could be Dravidian, Munda, or even a lost language isolate.
• Most inscriptions are short (4–5 signs), suggesting their use in administrative or commercial contexts rather than literary purposes.
• Seals bearing the script were likely used for trade, identification, and possibly religious symbolism.
• Some scholars believe the script may have been used by a limited elite or administrative class, given its scarcity on public monuments or architecture.

Decline Theories:

• Gradual decline began around 1900 BCE, marking the transition from the Mature to the Late Harappan phase.
• Likely causes include prolonged climate change leading to droughts and shifting monsoon patterns, the drying up of key rivers like the Ghaggar-Hakra, and repeated flooding in major urban centers.
• Over-exploitation of natural resources, deforestation for agriculture and brick-making, and soil degradation may have made urban life unsustainable.
• Disruption of long-distance trade with Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf region due to regional instability also weakened economic strength.
• Urban centers were gradually abandoned, and people migrated towards smaller rural settlements or eastward into the Ganga-Yamuna plain.
• Importantly, there is no archaeological evidence of large-scale invasions, warfare, or destruction by fire, suggesting a gradual socio-economic decline rather than a violent collapse.

Legacy and Significance:

• Set the foundation for urban planning, including grid-pattern city layouts, systematic drainage, and use of standardized construction materials—features later echoed in Mauryan and other ancient Indian cities.
• Craft specialization in metallurgy, bead-making, and pottery influenced subsequent Chalcolithic cultures like Jorwe and Malwa.
• Many cultural elements, such as fire worship and symbolic motifs, persisted into the Vedic phase and folk traditions.
• Represents a non-Vedic, sophisticated civilization that was indigenous, self-sustaining, and possibly egalitarian in social structure.
• Its maritime trade practices, civic management, and ecological adaptations serve as a model for sustainable urbanism in ancient contexts.

Factual One-Liners for Exams:

1. Harappan Civilization is a Bronze Age civilization (2600–1900 BCE).
2. Harappa was discovered by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921.
3. Mohenjodaro was excavated by R.D. Banerjee in 1922.
4. Dholavira is known for its water reservoirs and script signboard.
5. Lothal had a dockyard, indicating maritime trade.
6. The Dancing Girl is made of bronze; found at Mohenjodaro.
7. Fire altars were found at Kalibangan.
8. The Harappan script is undeciphered and pictographic.
9. Rakhigarhi is the largest Harappan site in India.
10. The Great Bath is located in Mohenjodaro.

Conclusion: The Indus Valley Civilization is one of the most remarkable early civilizations in human history. With its well-planned cities, sophisticated art, and complex economy, it laid the groundwork for future developments in the Indian subcontinent. Despite the script remaining undeciphered, archaeological evidence continues to provide valuable insights into this ancient urban culture. Its legacy is visible in the urban layouts of later Indian cities, cultural continuity in rituals and craftsmanship, and its influence on later societal structures. As excavations continue, the civilization’s contributions to early state formation, environmental adaptation, and inter-regional trade offer vital lessons for modern scholars and civilizational studies.

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Rohit Thapa

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